In this review article, we summarize the fundamental principles of electrospinning processes for generating complex fibrous scaffolds geometries that are similar in structural complexity to the ECM of living tissues. Therefore, it is important to analyze the sophisticated structures of fibrous scaffolds, including its spatial geometry and 3D form. Although these introduced fibrous scaffolds have been successfully applied to mimic native tissues, more research is needed in order to fully understand the cellular responses to sophisticated structures with different scales, dimensions, and spatial arrangements. To date, the scientific community has investigated a considerable number of fabricated structures of electrospun fibers and their corresponding functions for tissue engineering, including the generation of skin, bone, muscle, cartilage, and blood vessels. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of a natural extracellular matrix (ECM) in distinct types of tissues with ( a) isotropic direction and ( b) anisotropic direction ( c) Schematic illustration of the electrospinning process ( d) Representative SEM images of fibrous scaffolds with a controllable fibrous scale with ( d) randomly and ( e) aligned fibrous deposition via electrospinning. demonstrated that the small pore size of electrospun fibrous scaffolds could hamper cellular migration into a fibrous scaffold, restricting tissue ingrowth. Such poor cell infiltration into the fibrous scaffolds results in the formation of two-dimensional (2D) surfaces rather than a three-dimensional (3D) environment, which more closely mimics the ECM. However, conventional electrospun fibrous scaffolds are composed entirely of closed-packed fibers, which provide a superficial porous structure, and these porous structures became smaller when the fiber diameter is decreased from the microscale to the nanoscale. For example, porosity is observed in skin and bone tissues, which have a large volume fraction of interconnected pores to facilitate cell migration and the transport of nutrients during tissue regeneration. These processes can be suitable for the large-scale production of scaffolds with a controllable single fiber diameter, motivating us to attempt to manipulate the process for tissue-specific applications.Īs with other biocompatible materials used to mimic native tissues, electrospun fibrous scaffolds provide nanoscale/microscale fibrous structures with interconnecting pores, resembling the natural ECM in tissues, and showing a high potential to facilitate the formation of artificial functional tissues ( Figure 1). Several studies have been conducted to apply tissue engineering through controlling parameters of the electrospinning process, including electrospinning process parameters (i.e., the application of an electric field, flow rate, distance between the needle and collector, and diameter of the metallic needle) and solution parameters (i.e., concentration, viscosity, and solution conductivity). A simple equipment setup makes electrospinning a versatile way to process all of the different biocompatible polymers into fibrous scaffolds. Electrospinning is a spinning technique that uses electrostatic forces to produce fibrous scaffolds from biocompatible polymers. Therefore, biomaterials should be designed and engineered with the optimized structural function for the target tissue in mind.Įlectrospinning has been used for the fabrication of ECM-mimicking fibrous scaffolds for several decades. The relationship between architecture and function that governs normal physiology is equally instrumental in tissue regeneration. The biomimetic approaches taken in the field of biomaterials seek out innovation in technology from the phenomenon in nature. These components are known to provide mechanical and biochemical support to the surrounding cells, and these effects are dependent on tissue type. Given the importance of intercellular interactions between scaffolds and implanted surrounding cells/tissues, considerable efforts have been made to design an artificial extracellular matrix (ECM) composed of complex fibrous structures, including glycosaminoglycans, collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers. These engineering techniques start with scaffolds, providing environments for cells/tissues to grow in an orderly manner, and become functionalized into new tissues/organs. Tissue engineering is an emerging multidisciplinary field that aims to regenerate damaged or lost tissues/organs of living organisms using a combination of cells and scaffolds.
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